International Journal of Clinical Science and Medical Research

Research has indicated that Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing is a useful technique for lowering Posttraumatic Stress Disorder symptoms in refugee populations around the world.  The purpose of the study was to establish the impact of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing treatment on Posttraumatic Stress Disorder symptoms among a select group of urban refugees seeking services at an international non-governmental organization in Nairobi. A time series quasi-experimental design was used for the study. Participants were administered a sociodemographic survey, and the Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition.  A total of sixty-nine participants who satisfied the clinical criteria for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder according to the Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, were randomized through simple random sampling. Treatment consisted of eight 90-minute Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing sessions with the experimental group. Both the experimental and control groups' Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition scores were obtained after 4 sessions (midline), and after 4 additional sessions (endline). Data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, version 27. Findings of the study showed that the experimental group's Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition scores significantly decreased over time.  A repeated measures contrast analysis to examine the pattern of change in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder scores across the three timepoints indicated that the decrease in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder scores was statistically significant (F(1, 62) = 59.93, p < .001, partial η² = .492). These results demonstrate the value of focused psychological therapies and validate the effectiveness of the treatment.             

EMDR, Trauma therapy, post-conflict, Trauma, Africa

1. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Annual results report 2024: Kenya. Geneva, Switzerland: UNHCR; 2024. Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/media/kenya-annual-results-report-2024
2. Mulwa EN, Odera P, Simiyu RN. Nature and extent of traumatic experiences among refugees in Dadaab camp, Kenya. Psychology. 2021;12:1911-1932.
3. Scott KM, Koenen KC, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Alonso J, Angermeyer MC, Benjet C, et al. Associations between lifetime traumatic events and subsequent chronic physical conditions: A cross-national, cross-sectional study. PLoS One. 2013;8(11):e80573. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0080573
4. Abu Suhaiban H, Grasser LR, Javanbakht A. Mental health of refugees and torture survivors: A critical review of prevalence, predictors, and integrated care. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16(13):2329. doi:10.3390/ijerph16132329
5. Silove D, Ventevogel P, Rees S. The contemporary refugee crisis: An overview of mental health challenges. World Psychiatry. 2017;16(2):129–130.
6. Acarturk C, Konuk E, Cetinkaya M, Senay I, Sijbrandij M, Cuijpers P, Aker T. EMDR for Syrian refugees with posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: Results of a pilot randomized controlled trial. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2015;6:27414. doi:10.3402/ejpt.v6.27414
7. Acarturk, C., Konuk, E., Cetinkaya, M., Senay, I., Sijbrandij, M., Gulen, B., & Cuijpers, P. The efficacy of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for post-traumatic stress disorder and depression among Syrian refugees: Results of a randomized controlled trial. Psychological Medicine. 2016;46:12:2583-2593.
8. Alpak, G., Unal, A., Bulbul, F., Sagaltici, E., Bez, Y., Altindag, A., ... & Savas, H. A. Post-traumatic stress disorder among Syrian refugees in Turkey: A cross-sectional study. International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice. 2015;19:1, 45-50.
9. Atwoli L, Stein DJ, Koenen KC, McLaughlin KA. Epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: Prevalence, correlates and consequences. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2015;28(4):307–311. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26001922/
10. Australian Centre for Posttraumatic Mental Health (ACPMH). Australian guidelines for the treatment of acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. Author. 2013.
11. World Health Organization. Guidelines for the management of conditions specifically related to stress. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2013.
12. Mbazzi FB, Dewailly A, Admasu K, Duagani Y, Wamala K, Vera A, Roth G. Cultural adaptations of the standard EMDR protocol in five African countries. J EMDR Pract Res. 2021;15(1):29-43.
13. Schubert SJ, Lee CW, De Araujo G, Butler SR, Taylor G, Drummond PD. The effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy to treat symptoms following trauma in Timor Leste. J Trauma Stress. 2016;29(2):141–148.
14. Shapiro F. EMDR therapy: An overview of current and future research. Eur Rev Appl Psychol. 2012;62(4):193–195. doi:10.1016/j.erap.2012.09.005
15. Shapiro F. Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Basic principles, protocols, and procedures. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2018.
16. Bisson, J., & Andrew, M. Psychological treatment of post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2007;3. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003388.pub3
17. Bradley, R., Greene, J., Russ, E., Dutra, L., & Westen, D. A multidimensional meta-analysis of psychotherapy for PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry. 2005;162:2:214-227.
18. Stanbury TMM, Drummond PD, Laugharne J, Kullack C, Lee CW. Comparative efficiency of EMDR and prolonged exposure in treating posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized trial. J EMDR Pract Res. 2020;14(1):2–12. doi:10.1891/1933-3196.14.1.2
19. National Institute for Clinical Excellence. Post-traumatic stress disorder: NICE guideline (NG116). London, UK: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence; 2018.
20. International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (ISTSS) Committee. Posttraumatic stress disorder prevention and treatment guidelines: Methodology and recommendations. Author. 2018.
21. Ter Heide FJJ, Mooren T, Knipscheer JW, Kleber RJ. EMDR with traumatized refugees: From experience-based to evidence-based practice. J EMDR Pract Res. 2014;8(3):147–156.
22. Antuña‐Camblor, C., & Hernández, V. T. EMDR interventions in refugees and asylum seekers: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy. 2025;32. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cpp.70039
23. Gattinara, P. C., & Pallin, S. The use of EMDR with refugees and asylum seekers: A review of research studies. Clinical Neuropsychiatry. 2017;14:5:341-344.
24. Ter Heide FJJT, Mooren TM, Kleber RJ. Complex PTSD and phased treatment in refugees: A debate piece. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2016;7:28687. doi:10.3402/ejpt.v7.28687
25. Nickerson A, Bryant RA, Silove D, Steel Z. A critical review of psychological treatments of posttraumatic stress disorder in refugees. Clin Psychol Rev. 2011;31(3):399–417.
26. Weathers FW, Litz B, Herman D, Juska J, Keane T. PTSD checklist—civilian version. 1993. Available at: https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037/t02622-000
27. Shapiro F. Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Basic principles, protocols, and procedures. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1995.
28. Shapiro F. Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): Basic principles, protocols, and procedures. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2001